Acknowledgment to the Reviewers of Journal of Environmental & Earth Sciences in 2025
2026-02-06
Assessing the Vulnerability of Outdoor Recreation to Increasing Heatwaves and Droughts
Authors
-
Huang Zheng
School of Physical Education, Henan Kaifeng College of Science Technology and Communication, Kaifeng 475001, China
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v8i5.13265Abstract
Heatwaves can lead to extreme weather conditions, and droughts are becoming more common, lasting, and operationally significant, exposing outdoor recreation to these elements. This review summarizes existing data on the impacts of extreme heat and water shortages on recreation participation, safety, the experience quality, and management, and considers methods used to assess vulnerability. We incorporate results with an Exposure Sensitivity Adaptive Capacity well-constructed that interrelates hazards with outcomes in the form of heat strain in physiological processes, barriers to hydrologic access, distinct aggrade-water offenses, alteration of the ecosystem, and operational failures. Vulnerability is highly non-linear, so in all forms of recreation, increased risk due to heat is experienced to prevent thermal stress limits, and abrupt opportunity loss due to drought in the forms of streams flowing, the last stream flowing, and a regulation protection being above a specific threshold. Exertional heat stress and microclimate variability have a disproportionate effect on trial-based and endurance activities, and water-based recreation is limited due to low flows/levels and mediated by water-quality hazards associated with warming, e.g., harmful algal blooms. The emerging prominence of compound and cascading processes, such as the interaction of heat-drought and wildfire smoke, makes it rather challenging to attribute and predict such events, which are more likely to lead to closures and displacement. We approach this methodologically, suggesting that heatwaves and drought should be consistently defined, that heatwave and hydrologic definitions need to be applied more frequently in recreation-relevant exposure metrics, and that effective application of adaptation and equity indices requires rigorous estimation. We end up with integrated decision support priorities that convert the indicators into operational triggers and inclusive risk communication.
Keywords:
Heatwaves; Drought; Outdoor Recreation; Vulnerability Assessment; Adaptive CapacityReferences
[1] Jensen, C.R., Guthrie, S., 2006. Outdoor Recreation in America. Human Kinetics: Champaign, IL, USA.
[2] Chukwuma Sr., C., 2025. Invariance of extreme hydrologic events and climate change in the risk reduction on environment and health. Greenfort International Journal of Applied Medical Science. 3(2), 92–102.
[3] O’Toole, D., anowiak, M.K., Schmitt, K.M., et al., 2019. Climate change adaptation strategies and approaches for outdoor recreation. Sustainability. 11(24), 7030.
[4] Willwerth, J., Sheahan, M., Chan, N., et al., 2023. The effects of climate change on outdoor recreation. Weather, Climate, and Society. 15(3), 477.
[5] Niggli, L., Huggel, C., Muccione, V., et al., 2022. Towards improved understanding of cascading and interconnected risks from concurrent weather extremes: Analysis of historical heat and drought extreme events. PLoS Climate. 1(8), e0000057.
[6] Kutlu, D., Kasalak, M.A., Bahar, M., 2025. Assessing climate change impacts on outdoor recreation: Insights from visitor and business perspectives. Sustainability. 17(8), 3400.
[7] Hao, Z., Hao, F., Xia, Y., et al., 2022. Compound droughts and hot extremes: Characteristics, drivers, changes, and impacts. Earth-Science Reviews. 235, 104241.
[8] Hewer, M., Scott, D., Fenech, A., 2016. Seasonal weather sensitivity, temperature thresholds, and climate change impacts for park visitation. Tourism Geographies. 18(3), 297–321.
[9] Verbos, R.I., Altschuler, B., Brownlee, M.T., 2018. Weather studies in outdoor recreation and nature-based tourism: A research synthesis and gap analysis. Leisure Sciences. 40(6), 533–556.
[10] Hsu, J.L., Sharma, P., 2023. Disaster and risk management in outdoor recreation and tourism in the context of climate change. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management. 15(5), 712–728.
[11] Shores, K.A., Scott, D., Floyd, M.F., 2007. Constraints to outdoor recreation: A multiple hierarchy stratification perspective. Leisure Sciences. 29(3), 227–246.
[12] Haegeli, P., Pröbstl-Haider, U., 2016. Research on Personal Risk in Outdoor Recreation and Nature-Based Tourism. Journal of Outdoor Recreation and Tourism. 13, 1–9.
[13] Gstaettner, A.M., Lee, D., Weiler, B., et al., 2019. Visitor safety in recreational protected areas: Exploring responsibility-sharing from a management perspective. Tourism Management. 75, 370–380.
[14] Smit, B., Wandel, J., 2006. Adaptation, adaptive capacity and vulnerability. Global Environmental Change. 16(3), 282–292.
[15] Brooks, N., Adger, W.N., 2005. Assessing and enhancing adaptive capacity. In: Lim, B., Spanger-Siegfried, E., Burton, I., et al. (Eds.). Adaptation Policy Frameworks for Climate Change: Developing Strategies, Policies and Measures. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, MA, USA.
[16] Sánchez Jiménez, J.L., de Adana, M.R., 2024. Assessment of outdoor thermal comfort in a hot summer region of Europe. Atmosphere. 15(2), 214.
[17] Benevolenza, M.A., DeRigne, L., 2019. The impact of climate change and natural disasters on vulnerable populations: A systematic review of literature. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment. 29(2), 266–281.
[18] Mayrhuber, E.A.-S., Dückers, M.L.A., Wallner, P., et al., 2018. Vulnerability to heatwaves and implications for public health interventions—A scoping review. Environmental Research. 166, 42–54.
[19] Bernard, P., Chevance, G., Kingsbury, C., et al., 2021. Climate change, physical activity and sport: A systematic review. Sports Medicine. 51(5), 1041–1059.
[20] Crowley, N., Doolittle, C., King, J., et al., 2019. Drought and outdoor recreation: Impacts, adaptation strategies, and information gaps in the intermountain West. NIDIS: Boulder, CO, USA.
[21] Thomas, D.S., Wilhelmi, O.V., Finnessey, T.N., et al., 2013. A comprehensive framework for tourism and recreation drought vulnerability reduction. Environmental Research Letters. 8(4), 044004.
[22] Bitsura-Meszaros, K., Seekamp, E., Davenport, M., et al., 2019. A PGIS-based climate change risk assessment process for outdoor recreation and tourism dependent communities. Sustainability. 11(12), 3300.
[23] Araos, M., Jagannathan, K., Shukla, R., et al., 2021. Equity in human adaptation-related responses: A systematic global review. One Earth. 4(10), 1454–1467.
[24] Grundstein, A.J., Williams, C.A., 2018. Heat exposure and the general public: Health impacts, risk communication, and mitigation measures. In: Hosokawa, Y. (Ed.). Human Health and Physical Activity During Heat Exposure. Springer: Cham, Switzerland. pp. 29–43.
[25] Vanos, J., 2011. Modelling Outdoor Thermal Comfort of Humans Performing Physical Activity: Applications to Health and Emergency Heat Stress Preparedness [PhD Thesis]. University of Guelph: Guelph, ON, Canada.
[26] Keeler, B.L., Polasky, S., Brauman, K.A., et al., 2012. Linking water quality and well-being for improved assessment and valuation of ecosystem services. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109(45), 18619–18624.
[27] Shaheen, N., Shaheen, A., Ramadan, A., et al., 2023. Appraising systematic reviews: A comprehensive guide to ensuring validity and reliability. Frontiers in Research Metrics and Analytics. 8, 1268045.
[28] Eiser, J.R., Bostrom, A., Burton, I., et al., 2012. Risk interpretation and action: A conceptual framework for responses to natural hazards. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction. 1, 5–16.
[29] Wilkins, E.J., Horne, L., 2024. Effects and perceptions of weather, climate, and climate change on outdoor recreation and nature-based tourism in the United States: A systematic review. PLOS Climate. 3(4), e0000266.
[30] Immonen, T., Brymer, E., Davids, K., et al., 2022. An ecological dynamics approach to understanding human-environment interactions in the adventure sport context—Implications for research and practice. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 19(6), 3691.
[31] Naldo, R., 2021. Behavior Influencing Acute Hydration Status of Recreational Hikers in Hot and Moderate Weather Conditions [Master's Thesis]. Arizona State University: Tempe, AZ, USA.
[32] Courtney-Wolfman, L., 2024. Urban heat waves and adaptive capacity: How can social infrastructure help reduce vulnerability? In: Renner, A.-T., Plank, L., Getzner, M. (Eds.). Handbook of Social Infrastructure: Conceptual and Empirical Research Perspectives. Edward Elgar Publishing: Cheltenham, UK. pp. 289–311.
[33] Kim, J.-S., Jain, S., Lee, J., et al., 2019. Quantitative vulnerability assessment of water quality to extreme drought in a changing climate. Ecological Indicators, 103, 688–697.
[34] Teshome, D.T., Zharare, G.E., Naidoo, S., 2020. The threat of the combined effect of biotic and abiotic stress factors in forestry under a changing climate. Frontiers in Plant Science. 11, 601009.
[35] Tran, T.K.H., 2025. Impacts of Extreme Weather on the Variability of Critical Parameters in Drinking Water Supply Systems: Insights from Operational Experience [PhD Thesis]. Università degli Studi di Brescia: Brescia, Italy.
[36] Yu, J., Castellani, K., Forysinski, K., et al., 2021. Geospatial indicators of exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity to assess neighbourhood variation in vulnerability to climate change-related health hazards. Environmental Health. 20(1), 31.
[37] Naylor, A., Ford, J., Pearce, T., et al., 2020. Conceptualizing climate vulnerability in complex adaptive systems. One Earth. 2(5), 444–454.
[38] Finger, R., Lehmann, N., 2012. Modeling the sensitivity of outdoor recreation activities to climate change. Climate Research. 51(3), 229–236.
[39] Engle, N.L., 2011. Adaptive capacity and its assessment. Global Environmental Change. 21(2), 647–656.
[40] Vogel, M.M., Zscheischler, J., Fischer, E.M., et al., 2020. Development of future heatwaves for different hazard thresholds. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 125(9), e2019JD032070.
[41] Hoehne, C.G., Hondula, D.M., Chester, M.V., et al., 2018. Heat exposure during outdoor activities in the US varies significantly by city, demography, and activity. Health & Place. 54, 1–10.
[42] Weis, S.W.M., Agostini, V.N., Roth, L.M., et al., 2016. Assessing vulnerability: An integrated approach for mapping adaptive capacity, sensitivity, and exposure. Climatic Change. 136(3), 615–629.
[43] Brocherie, F., Millet, G.P., 2015. Is the wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT) index relevant for exercise in the heat? Sports Medicine. 45(11), 1619–1621.
[44] Morris, C.E., Gonzales, R.G., Hodgson, M.J., et al., 2019. Actual and simulated weather data to evaluate wet bulb globe temperature and heat index as alerts for occupational heat-related illness. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Hygiene. 16(1), 54–65.
[45] Quesada-Ganuza, L., Garmendia, L., Alvarez, I., et al., 2023. Vulnerability assessment and categorization against heat waves for the Bilbao historic area. Sustainable Cities and Society. 98, 104805.
[46] Liu, J., Liu, Q., Yang, H., 2016. Assessing water scarcity by simultaneously considering environmental flow requirements, water quantity, and water quality. Ecological Indicators. 60, 434–441.
[47] Moret, W., 2014. Vulnerability Assessment Methodologies: A Review of the Literature. FHI: Washington, DC, USA.
[48] McDowell, G., Ford, J., Jones, J., 2016. Community-level climate change vulnerability research: trends, progress, and future directions. Environmental Research Letters. 11(3), 033001.
[49] Shaw, W.D., Loomis, J.B., 2008. Frameworks for analyzing the economic effects of climate change on outdoor recreation. Climate Research. 36, 259–269.
[50] Dundas, S.J., von Haefen, R.H., 2021. The importance of data structure and nonlinearities in estimating climate impacts on outdoor recreation. Natural Hazards. 107(3), 2053–2075.
[51] Kabisch, N., Kraemer, R., Brenck, M.E., et al., 2021. A methodological framework for the assessment of regulating and recreational ecosystem services in urban parks under heat and drought conditions. Ecosystems and People. 17(1), 464–475.
[52] Henderson, C.D., 2021. Nature-Based Recreation and Support for Conservation: A Mixed-Methods Approach to Understanding Michigan Outdoor Enthusiasts [PhD Thesis]. Michigan State University: East Lansing, MI, USA.
[53] Klug, H., Kmoch, A., 2015. Operationalizing environmental indicators for real time multi-purpose decision making and action support. Ecological Modelling. 295, 66–74.
[54] Phillips, K.E., Rice, W.L., Armatas, C.A., et al., 2024. Allocating Recreation with Fairness at the Forefront: A Research-Based Planning and Management Guidebook. University of Montana, Wildland and Recreation Management Research Laboratory: Missoula, MT, USA.
[55] Moreno, A., 2010. Climate Change and Tourism: Impacts and Vulnerability in Coastal Europe [PhD Thesis]. Universitaire Pers Maastricht: Maastricht, The Netherlands.
[56] Lanza, K., Gohlke, J., Wang, S., et al., 2022. Climate change and physical activity: Ambient temperature and urban trail use in Texas. International Journal of Biometeorology. 66(8), 1575–1588.
[57] Wardenaar, F.C., Hoogervorst, D., Ainsworth, B.E., 2024. Energy expenditure and physiological markers during a city mountain hike in the heat: A case study. Nutrition and Health. 30(3), 429–433.
[58] Davis, S., McAlear, Z., Plovnick, A., et al., 2023. Trails and Resilience: Review of the Role of Trails in Climate Resilience and Emergency Response. U.S. Department of Transportation Volpe Center, Federal Highway Administration Office of Human Environment: Washington, DC, USA.
[59] Ma, S., Craig, C., Scott, D., et al., 2021. Global climate resources for camping and nature-based tourism. Tourism and Hospitality. 2(4), 365–379.
[60] Chachar, S., Ahmed, N., Hu, X., 2025. Drought‐Induced Aesthetic Decline and Ecological Impacts on Ornamentals: Mechanisms of Damage and Innovative Strategies for Mitigation. Plant Biology. 28(3), 578–600.
[61] Uhlig, L., 2019. Drought Perceptions and Management Techniques for Outdoor Recreation in the Great Plains [Bachelor's Thesis]. University of Nebraska-Lincoln: Lincoln, NE, USA.
[62] Chang, H., Bonnette, M.R., 2016. Climate change and water‐related ecosystem services: Impacts of drought in California, USA. Ecosystem Health and Sustainability. 2(12), e01254.
[63] Mason, H.M., King, J.C., Peden, A.E., et al., 2024. The impact of extreme heat on mass-gathering sporting events: Implications for Australia and other countries. Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport. 27(8), 515–524.
[64] González‐Trujillo, J.D., Alagador, D., González-del-Pliego, P., et al., 2024. Exposure of protected areas in Central America to extreme weather events. Conservation Biology. 38(4), e14251.
[65] Lipka, O.N., 2017. Methodological approaches to climate change vulnerability assessment of protected areas. Nature Conservation Research. 2(3), 68–79.
[66] Hoffmann, S., Beierkuhnlein, C., 2020. Climate change exposure and vulnerability of the global protected area estate from an international perspective. Diversity and Distributions. 26(11), 1496–1509.
[67] El Kenawy, A.M., 2024. Hydroclimatic extremes in arid and semi-arid regions: Status, challenges, and future outlook. In: El Kenawy, A.M., Robaa, E.S.M., Torab, M.M.M., et al. (Eds.). Hydroclimatic Extremes in the Middle East and North Africa. Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Neterlands. pp. 1–22.
[68] Turco, M., von Hardenberg, J., AghaKouchak, A., et al., 2017. On the key role of droughts in the dynamics of summer fires in Mediterranean Europe. Scientific Reports. 7(1), 81.
[69] Heger, M., 2021. Equitable adaptation to extreme heat impacts of climate change. UCLA Journal of Environmental Law & Policy. 39, 283.
[70] Putsoane, T., Bhanye, J.I., Matamanda, A., 2024. Extreme weather events and health inequalities: Exploring vulnerability and resilience in marginalized communities. Developments in Environmental Science. 15, 225–248.
[71] Serkendiz, H., Tatli, H., 2023. Assessment of multidimensional drought vulnerability using exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity components. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 195(10), 1154.
[72] van Westen, C.J., Greiving, S., 2017. Multi-hazard risk assessment and decision making. In: Dalezios, N.R. (Ed.). Environmental Hazards Methodologies for Risk Assessment and Management. IWA Publishing: London, UK.
[73] Wilkins, E.J., Keener, S.R., Carr, W., et al., 2025. Adapting visitor use management under a changing climate across the US National Park System. Journal of Environmental Management. 391, 126424.
[74] Akbari, H., 2009. Cooling our communities. A Guidebook on Tree Planting and Light-Colored Surfacing. United States Environmental Protection Agency: Washington DC, USA.
[75] Zolfagharpour, F., Saghafian, B., Delavar, M., 2021. Adapting reservoir operation rules to hydrological drought state and environmental flow requirements. Journal of Hydrology. 600, 126581.
[76] Chang, J., Guo, A., Wang, Y., et al., 2019. Reservoir operations to mitigate drought effects with a hedging policy triggered by the drought prevention limiting water level. Water Resources Research. 55(2), 904–922.
[77] Plana, E., Martín, D., Font, M., et al., 2015. Social Factor and Territorial Dimension of Wildfire Risk Management: Managing Societal Involvement and Cross-Sectoral Planning. FIREfficient Project: Solsona, Spain.
[78] Magnan, A.K., Schipper, E.L.F., Burkett, M.,et al., 2016. Addressing the risk of maladaptation to climate change. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change. 7(5), 646–665.
[79] Askew, A.E., Bowker, J., 2018. Impacts of climate change on outdoor recreation participation: Outlook to 2060. The Journal of Park and Recreation Administration. 36(2), 97–120.
[80] Morris, D., Walls, M., 2009. Climate Change and Outdoor Recreation Resources. Resources for the Future: Washington, DC, USA.
[81] Dulin, S., Smith, M., Ellinport, B., et al., 2025. Quantifying the compounding effects of natural hazard events: A case study on wildfires and floods in California. npj Natural Hazards. 2(1), 40.
[82] Arredondo, J.R., 2023. Spatial Tools for Management of Protected Natural Areas: Case Studies in Camping Management and Trail Impact Assessment [PhD Thesis]. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University: Blacksburg, VA, USA.
[83] Cauley, L.E., 2004. Integrating Social Equity into the Measurement of Human Values in Outdoor Recreation [Master's Thesis]. The University of Montana: Missoula, MT, USA.
[84] Miller, T.A., 1997. Coping Behaviors in Recreational Settings: Substitution, Displacement, and Cognitive Adjustments as a Response to Stress [PhD Thesis]. University of Montana: Missoula, MT, USA.
Downloads
How to Cite
Zheng, H. (2026). Assessing the Vulnerability of Outdoor Recreation to Increasing Heatwaves and Droughts. Journal of Environmental & Earth Sciences, 8(5), 226–251. https://doi.org/10.30564/jees.v8i5.13265
Issue
Article Type
Review
License
Copyright © 2026 Huang Zheng
This is an open access article under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) License.
